Method for increasing sensor resolution by spectrally stacking responsive dyes

ABSTRACT

An analyte-sensitive substance is provided that has an optical property related to the concentration of an analyte. The analyte-sensitive substance includes an ionophore or other substance configured to provide a local pH, within the analyte-sensitive substance, that is related to the concentration of the analyte proximate the analyte-sensitive substance. The analyte-sensitive substance further includes a pH-sensitive fluorophore that increases or decreases its intrinsic fluorescence intensity with the local pH across a specified range of pH values. The analyte-sensitive substance further includes a pH-sensitive quencher configured to increase the slope of the change of fluorescence intensity of the pH-sensitive fluorophore across the specified range of pH values. The analyte-sensitive substance may further include an ionic additive configured to adjust the local pH such that the specified range of pH values corresponds to a range of analyte concentration values of interest.

BACKGROUND

Unless otherwise indicated herein, the materials described in thissection are not prior art to the claims in this application and are notadmitted to be prior art by inclusion in this section.

Certain medical conditions or states can be characterized by theconcentration of a physiologically relevant analyte (e.g., glucose, anion, a hormone) over a narrow range of concentrations. Theconcentrations of such analytes can be measured in a variety of ways. Insome examples, a fluorophore or other optically active substance couldbe configured to have a physical property (e.g., a fluorescenceintensity) that is related to the concentration of the analyte. Forexample, a fluorophore could be configured to selectively bind to ananalyte of interest such that binding of the analyte quenches thefluorescence of the fluorophore. The fluorescence intensity of thefluorophore could be detected (e.g., by illuminating the fluorophore anddetecting light responsively emitted from the fluorophore) and used todetermine the concentration of the analyte. In another example, afluorophore and a quencher could be maintained in proximity with eachother by a third compound (e.g., a protein) such that the quencherquenches the fluorophore (e.g., via the Forster resonance energytransfer (FRET) process) when the analyte is not bound to the thirdcompound. The third compound could be configured to separate thequencher and the fluorophore (e.g., to increase a fluorescence intensityof the fluorophore by reducing an amount of quenching by thefluorophore) when the analyte is bound to the third compound.

SUMMARY

Some embodiments of the present disclosure provide a sensor including ananalyte-sensitive substance, wherein the analyte-sensitive substanceincludes: (i) an ionophore that is configured to provide a local pHwithin the analyte-sensitive substance related to a concentration of ananalyte proximate the analyte-sensitive substance; (ii) a pH-sensitivefluorophore that is configured to fluoresce with a fluorescenceintensity that increases or decreases as a function of the local pH overa range of pH values according to an intrinsic intensity function,wherein the intrinsic intensity function has a first rate of change offluorescence intensity over the range of pH values; and (iii) apH-sensitive quencher that is configured to quench the pH-sensitivefluorophore to an extent that increases or decreases as a function ofthe local pH within the range of pH values. The pH-sensitivefluorophore, in combination with the pH-sensitive quencher, isconfigured to fluoresce with a fluorescence intensity that increases ordecreases as a function of the local pH over the range of pH valuesaccording to a quencher-modified intensity function. Thequencher-modified intensity function has a second rate of change offluorescence intensity over the range of pH values that is greater inmagnitude than the first rate of change.

Some embodiments of the present disclosure provide a sensor including ananalyte-sensitive substance, wherein the analyte-sensitive substanceincludes: (i) an ionophore that is configured to provide a local pHwithin the analyte-sensitive substance related to a concentration of ananalyte proximate the analyte-sensitive substance; (ii) a pH-sensitivefluorophore that is configured to fluoresce with a fluorescenceintensity that increases or decreases as a function of the local pH overa range of pH values according to an intrinsic intensity function,wherein the intrinsic intensity function has a first rate of change offluorescence intensity over the range of pH values; and (iii) an ionicadditive that is configured to one of raise or lower the local pH. Anamount of the ionic additive in the analyte-sensitive substance isspecified such that the range of pH values corresponds to a specifiedrange of concentrations of the analyte proximate the analyte-sensitivesubstance.

Some embodiments of the present disclosure provide a method for formingan analyte-sensitive substance. The method includes (i) forming a firstsolution that includes (a) an organic solvent, (b) an ionophore thatincludes a hydrophobic substance and that is configured to provide alocal pH within the analyte-sensitive substance related to aconcentration of an analyte proximate the analyte-sensitive substance,and (c) a pH-sensitive fluorophore that includes a hydrophobic substanceand that is configured to fluoresce with a fluorescence intensity thatincreases or decreases as a function of the local pH over a range of pHvalues according to an intrinsic intensity function, wherein theintrinsic intensity function has a first rate of change of fluorescenceintensity over the range of pH values. The method further includes: (ii)combining the first solution and an aqueous solution, wherein at leastone of the first solution or the aqueous solution includes anamphiphilic compound; and (iii) evaporating the organic solvent to forma plurality of nanoparticles, wherein each nanoparticle of the pluralityof nanoparticles includes the pH-sensitive fluorophore and the ionophoreenclosed within a layer of the amphiphilic compound.

These as well as other aspects, advantages, and alternatives, willbecome apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art by reading thefollowing detailed description, with reference where appropriate to theaccompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic view of an example analyte sensor that includes ananalyte-sensitive substance.

FIG. 2 is an example plot of the fluorescence intensity of apH-sensitive fluorophore.

FIG. 3A is an example plot of the quenching activity of a pH-sensitivequencher.

FIG. 3B is an examples plot of a quencher-modified intensity function ofthe pH-sensitive fluorophore of FIG. 2 when being quenched by thepH-sensitive quencher of FIG. 3A.

FIG. 4A is an example plot of the fluorescence intensity of thepH-sensitive fluorophore of FIG. 2 and the correspondence of pH to theconcentration of an analyte.

FIG. 4B is an example plot of the fluorescence intensity of thepH-sensitive fluorophore of FIG. 2 and the correspondence of pH to theconcentration of an analyte when the pH-sensitive fluorophore iscombined with an ionic additive.

FIG. 4C is a plot of experimentally determined fluorescence intensitiesof three different formulations of an analyte-sensitive substance.

FIG. 4D is a plot of experimentally determined fluorescence intensitiesof three different formulations of an analyte-sensitive substance.

FIG. 5 is an example plot of the fluorescence intensity of a furtherpH-sensitive fluorophore overlaid on the fluorescence intensity of thepH-sensitive fluorophore of FIG. 2.

FIG. 6 is a schematic view of an example analyte sensor that includes ananalyte-sensitive substance, showing a simplified schematic view ofnanoparticles of the analyte-sensitive substance.

FIG. 7 is a flowchart of an example method.

FIG. 8 is a flowchart of an example method.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

In the following detailed description, reference is made to theaccompanying figures, which form a part hereof. In the figures, similarsymbols typically identify similar components, unless context dictatesotherwise. The illustrative embodiments described in the detaileddescription, figures, and claims are not meant to be limiting. Otherembodiments may be utilized, and other changes may be made, withoutdeparting from the scope of the subject matter presented herein. It willbe readily understood that the aspects of the present disclosure, asgenerally described herein, and illustrated in the figures, can bearranged, substituted, combined, separated, and designed in a widevariety of different configurations, all of which are explicitlycontemplated herein.

I. Overview

Some embodiments of the present disclosure provide a sensor configuredto detect an analyte. The sensor includes an analyte-sensitive substancethat can be optically interrogated to detect the concentration of theanalyte in a fluid or other environment to which the analyte-sensitivesubstance is exposed. Optical interrogation of the analyte-sensitivesubstance includes illuminating the analyte-sensitive substance (e.g.,with light at a specified wavelength) and detecting a property of lightthat is responsively fluorescently emitted from one or more fluorophoresin the analyte-sensitive substance. The one or more fluorophores of theanalyte-sensitive substance include a pH-sensitive fluorophore having afluorescence intensity that is related to a local pH within theanalyte-sensitive substance. The analyte-sensitive substance can furtherinclude a pH-transducing substance that affects the local pH such thatthe local pH Is related to the concentration of the analyte.Alternatively, the analyte-sensitive substance could lack such atransducing agent and could be used to detect the pH of an environmentof interest (that is, the analyte-sensitive substance could beconfigured to detect the concentration of hydrogen ions).

The pH-transducing substance could include a variety of proteins,compounds, enzymes, ionophores, or other substances configured toprovide a local pH in the analyte-sensitive substance that is related tothe concentration of an analyte. In some examples, the analyte is an ion(e.g., potassium, sodium, calcium) and the analyte-sensitive substancecould include an ionophore (e.g., a crown ether, a calixarene, acryptand) that is configured to selectively interact with and/or bind tothe ion. The binding of the ion to the ionophore could attract or repel(depending on the charge of the analyte ion) hydrogen ions to change thelocal pH in a manner related to the concentration of the ion.Additionally or alternatively, the pH-transducing substance could beconfigured to provide a local pH in other ways. For example, thepH-transducing substance could include a protein or other substanceconfigured to release a hydrogen ion when bound to an analyte. Inanother examples, the pH-transducing substance could include an enzymeor other substance configured to catalyze a reaction in the presence ofan analyte (e.g., to catalyze the decomposition of the analyte), andproducts of such a reaction (e.g., hydrogen ions) could affect the localpH.

A pH-sensitive fluorophore of the analyte-sensitive substance isconfigured to fluoresce (that is, to emit fluorescent light in responseto illumination having a specified wavelength or other specifiedproperty) with a fluorescence intensity that increases or decreases as afunction of the local pH across a range of pH values according to anintrinsic intensity function of the pH-sensitive fluorophore. Theintrinsic intensity function increases or decreases across the range ofpH values according to a first rate of change. Thus, a change in thelocal pH within the range of pH values can be detected by detecting achange in the fluorescence intensity of the pH-sensitive fluorophore,e.g., by illuminating the analyte-sensitive substance with illuminationat an excitation wavelength of the pH-sensitive fluorophore anddetecting light responsively emitted from the analyte-sensitivesubstance with (e.g., detecting light at an emission wavelength of thepH-sensitive fluorophore). The sensitivity of the sensor to changes inthe local pH, or to the concentration of an analyte that is related, bythe action of a pH-transducing substance (e.g., an ionophore), to thelocal pH, can be related to the first rate of change of the intrinsicintensity function.

The sensitivity of the sensor can be increased by increasing the rate ofchange of the fluorescence intensity of the pH-sensitive fluorophoreacross the range of pH values. This can be accomplished by adding apH-sensitive quencher to the analyte-sensitive substance. ThepH-sensitive quencher is configured to quench the pH-sensitivefluorophore to an extent that increases or decreases across the range ofpH values. This pH-dependent quenching changes across the range of pHvalues such that the pH-sensitive fluorophore, in combination with thepH-sensitive quencher, fluoresces with a fluorescence intensity thatincreases or decreases as a function of the local pH across the range ofpH values according to a quencher-modified intensity function. Theamounts, concentrations, relative locations, emission spectra,excitation spectra, or other properties of the pH-sensitive fluorophoreand pH-sensitive quencher can be specified such that thequencher-modified intensity function increases or decreases across therange of pH values according to a second rate of change that is greaterin magnitude than the first rate of change.

Sensitivity of sensors as described herein could be increased in otherways. In some examples, the analyte-sensitive substance could include afurther pH-sensitive fluorophore that is configured to fluoresceaccording to a further fluorescence intensity function that increases ordecreases across the range of pH values. The rate of change of thefurther fluorescence intensity function could be opposite the rate ofchange of the intrinsic intensity function and/or the quencher modifiedintensity function across the range of pH values. The emission spectraand/or excitation spectra of the pH-sensitive fluorophore and thefurther pH-sensitive fluorophore could differ such that the fluorescenceintensities of the pH-sensitive fluorophore and further pH-sensitivefluorophore could be detected and used to determine the local pH and/orthe concentration of an analyte proximate the analyte-sensitivesubstance. Such a determination could include determining a difference,a ratio, or some other values based on the detected fluorescenceintensities.

In some examples, a sensor as described herein could be made sensitiveto changes in the concentration of an analyte (e.g., an ion) across aspecified range of concentrations. This could include configuring theanalyte-sensitive substance such that the specified range ofconcentrations corresponds to a range of pH values across which theintrinsic and/or quencher-modified intensity functions are sensitive(that is, a range of pH values across which the intensity function(s)increase or decrease). This could include specifying an amount orconcentration of an ionophore or other pH-transducing substance in theanalyte-sensitive substance. Additionally or alternatively, an ionicadditive (e.g., an anionic or cationic additive) could be added to theanalyte-sensitive substance to one of raise or lower the local pH withinthe analyte-sensitive substance. Such an ionic additive could beconfigured to raise of lower the local pH by facilitating ion-protonexchange. An amount of such an ionic additive in the analyte-sensitivesubstance could be specified such that the specified range ofconcentrations corresponds to the range of pH values to which changes inthe fluorescence of the analyte-sensitive substance are greatest, oraccording to some other consideration.

An analyte-sensitive substance as described herein could be configuredin a variety of ways. In some examples, pH-sensitive fluorophores,pH-sensitive quenchers, ionic additives, or other components of theanalyte-sensitive substance could be assembled into a plurality ofnanoparticles. Containing fluorophores and quenchers withinnanoparticles can facilitate interaction between the fluorophores andthe quenchers via Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET) effects,inner-filter effects, or other quenching processes that are facilitatedby close proximity between a fluorophore and a quencher. The size,analyte-permeability, or other properties of such nanoparticles could bespecified to control a rate of flux of the analyte (e.g., an ion) intoand out of such nanoparticles (e.g., to and from a hydrogel of theanalyte-sensitive substance in which such nanoparticles are disposed),to control an amount of quenching of the pH-sensitive fluorophore by thepH-sensitive quencher, or according to some other consideration. In someexamples, the pH-sensitive fluorophore, pH-sensitive quencher, ionicadditive, or other components could be composed of hydrophobicsubstances and could be assembled or formed into hydrophobic regions ofliposomes, micelles, or other such nanoparticles. Such nanoparticlescould be formed by disposing such hydrophobic substances, along with anamphiphilic substance, in an aqueous solution. The amphiphilic substancecould form a mono- or bi-layer around each of the formed nanoparticles.Properties (e.g., a length of a hydrophobic chain of the amphiphilicsubstance) could be specified to control a rate of flux of the analyteinto and out of the nanoparticles or according to some otherconsideration.

Analyte-sensitive substances as described herein could be incorporatedinto a variety of sensors and/or devices. In some examples, theanalyte-sensitive substance could be disposed proximate a light emitterand/or light detector of a device. The analyte-sensitive substance couldthen be exposed to an environment of interest (e.g., an interstitialfluid, blood, tear fluid on a cornea of an eye, an environmental fluid,a fluid of an industrial, food processing, pharmaceutical synthesis, orother artificial environment) and the light emitter and light detectorcould be used to determine the concentration of an analyte in theenvironment of interest by detecting the fluorescence intensity of theanalyte-sensitive substance. Alternatively, the analyte-sensitivesubstance could be disposed on or within an environment of interest(e.g., could be implanted in contact with blood or interstitial fluidbeneath a skin surface) and could be optically interrogated by a lightemitter and/or light detector that are located away from theanalyte-sensitive substance (e.g., that are located outside of the skinsurface, and that are configured to illuminate, and to receive lightfrom, the analyte-sensitive substance via the skin surface). Furtherconfigurations and/or applications of analyte-sensitive substances, andsensors including such substances, are anticipated.

It should be understood that the above embodiments, and otherembodiments described herein, are provided for explanatory purposes, andare not intended to be limiting.

II. Example Optical Detection of an Analyte

It can be beneficial in a variety of applications to detect aconcentration of an analyte in an environment of interest. For example,a variety of health or medical states of a person can be related to theconcentration of one or more analytes in fluids or tissues of theperson. In particular, the concentration of potassium, sodium, chlorine,calcium, and a number of other ions in interstitial fluid, blood, lymph,tears, or other fluids can be related to a health or disease state of aperson. In such examples, a body-mounted or otherwise configured devicethat is capable of detecting such ions or other analytes in a fluid ortissue of interest (e.g., by being placed against, implanted on orwithin, or otherwise provided in contact with the fluid or tissue) couldbe used to determine such health or disease states. In examples whereinsuch a body-mountable device is configured to be chronically mountedin/on the body, such ion or other analyte concentrations could bedetected substantially continuously, or at a specified rate, to provideinformation about the ion concentrations in a body, or determinedinformation about some related health or disease states, over aprotracted period of time.

Detecting the concentration of an analyte in a fluid can includedetecting a physical variable of one or more elements of a sensor. Thesensor is configured such that the detected physical variable is relatedto the concentration of the analyte. For example, the sensor couldinclude analyte-selective electrodes and the detected physical variablecould be an amperometric current through the electrodes, apotentiometric voltage across the electrodes, an impedance between theelectrodes (e.g., a DC impedance, or an impedance at one or morefrequencies), or some other electrical property of the analyte-selectiveelectrodes. In another example, the sensor could include ananalyte-sensitive substance having an optical property (e.g., a color,an emissivity, a fluorescence intensity, an absorption spectrum, anexcitation spectrum, an emission spectrum) that is related to theconcentration of the analyte. The detected physical variable could beaffected directly by the presence or concentration of the analyte (e.g.,an ion of interest could quench a fluorescence of a fluorophore of thesensor). Additionally or alternatively, the presence of the analytecould be related to the detected physical variable indirectly. Forexample, an enzyme could catalyze a reaction of the analyte to produce areaction product (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, hydrogen ions) and thedetected physical variable of the sensor could be related to thepresence or concentration of the reaction product.

FIG. 1 illustrates an example sensor configured to detect theconcentration of an analyte (e.g., an ion) in an environment of interest105. The environment of interest 105 could include a fluid of a body(e.g., a tear fluid, blood, lymph, interstitial fluid, saliva).Additionally or alternatively, the environment of interest 105 couldinclude a cornea, a skin surface, a gingival surface, a tissue beneath askin surface, or some other tissue. An analyte-sensitive substance 110of the sensor 100 is in contact with the environment of interest 105such that one or more optical properties of the analyte-sensitivesubstance are related to the concentration of the analyte in theenvironment of interest 105. In particular, the analyte-sensitivesubstance 110 includes substances configured to provide a local pH,within the analyte-sensitive substance 110, that is related to theconcentration of the analyte. Further, a fluorescence intensity of apH-sensitive fluorophore in the analyte-sensitive substance 110 isrelated to a local pH within the analyte-sensitive substance 110.

A light emitter 120 and light sensor 130 of the sensor 100 can beoperated to detect the fluorescence intensity of the pH-sensitivefluorophore. The fluorescence intensity can be related to theconcentration of the analyte in the environment of interest 105. Forexample, the light emitter 120 can emit illumination 125 toward theanalyte-sensitive substance 110 to excite the pH-sensitive fluorophore.The pH-sensitive fluorophore can then responsively emit light 135 thatcan be detected by a light sensor 130 of the sensor 100. Detecting anintensity or other property of the emitted light 135 can allow thedetermination of the fluorescence intensity of the pH-sensitivefluorophore. A concentration of the analyte can then be determined basedon the detected fluorescence intensity.

The analyte-sensitive substance 110 could be disposed proximate thelight emitter 120 and/or light sensor 130 in a device. Such a devicecould be mounted to a human or animal body, or to some other object orenvironment, such that the analyte-sensitive substance 110 is in contactwith the environment of interest 105. Alternatively, theanalyte-sensitive substance 110 could be disposed on or within a body orother environment, and the light emitter 120 and light sensor 130 couldoptically interrogate (that is, illuminate and detect light emittedfrom) the analyte-sensitive substance remotely, e.g., through a skinsurface beneath which the analyte-sensitive substance is located.

Further, while this disclosure describes detection of the concentrationof an analyte via detection of the fluorescence intensity of apH-sensitive fluorophore, other optical properties of a pH-sensitivefluorophore could additionally or alternatively be related to pH. Forexample, a pH-sensitive fluorophore could have a fluorescence lifetime,an emission spectrum, an excitation spectrum, or some other fluorescenceproperties that are affected by the pH in an environment of thefluorophore. Such alternative fluorescence properties could be detectedand used, by themselves or in combination with a detected fluorescenceintensity, to determine a pH and/or to determine the concentration of ananalyte as described elsewhere herein in the context of the detection offluorescence intensity.

A concentration of an analyte and/or a pH can be determined based on adetected fluorescence intensity of a fluorophore (e.g., of a fluorophorein an analyte-sensitive substance) and some information about therelationship between the fluorescence of the fluorophore and the pHand/or concentration of the analyte. Such a relationship could bedetermined based on known properties of the fluorophore. Additionally oralternatively, a calibration curve or other information about therelationship could be determined experimentally (e.g., by exposing thefluorophore to a variety of different environments having respectivevalues of pH and/or analyte concentration and detecting the fluorescenceintensity of the fluorophore when exposed to each of the differentenvironments).

The relationship between the fluorescence intensity of a fluorophore andpH (or some other variable of interest) in the environment of thefluorophore called be referred to as an intensity function. Such anintensity function could take a variety of forms. FIG. 2 illustrates anexample fluorescence intensity function 200 of a fluorophore as afunction of the pH in the environment of the fluorophore (e.g., as afunction of a local pH within an analyte-sensitive substance thatincludes the fluorophore). As illustrated in FIG. 2, the fluorescenceintensity function decreases as a function of the pH. Specifically, thefluorophore exhibits a high level of fluorescence intensity at lowvalues of pH. Conversely, the fluorophore exhibits a low level offluorescence intensity at high values of pH. The fluorescence intensityof the pH-sensitive fluorophore gradually decreases from the high levelto the low level as the pH increases across an indicated sensitive range210 of pH values. As illustrated, this decrease could be nonlinear withchanges in the pH level, though the change may be substantially linearwithin short ranges of change in pH within the sensitive range 210. Forexample, the example fluorescence intensity function 200 decreases at afirst rate of change 220 across a particular range of pH values 215within the sensitive range 210.

Note that the illustrated fluorescence intensity function 200 isintended as a non-limiting example of the dependence of the fluorescenceintensity of a pH-sensitive fluorophore, or of a complex of moleculesthat includes a pH-sensitive fluorophore, on pH. The fluorescenceintensity function of a pH-sensitive fluorophore could have othershapes, could be non-monotonic (that is, could decrease with pH oversome ranges of pH and increase over other ranges), could be low at lowvalues of pH and/or high at high values of pH, or could have some otherproperties. The pH-sensitive fluorophore could include a variety ofsubstances configured to change pH intensity according to a local pHvalue by a variety of different mechanisms. For example, theconcentration of hydrogen ions could act to protonate and/or deprotonatethe pH-sensitive fluorophore and affect a molecular orbital of thepH-sensitive fluorophore, to change a conformation of the fluorophoresuch that the fluorophore changes an excitation or emission spectrum, orcould affect the pH-sensitive fluorophore in some other way such thatthe pH-sensitive fluorophore has an intrinsic fluorescence intensityfunction (e.g., 200) that varies with changes in the pH of theenvironment of the pH-sensitive fluorophore.

A pH-sensitive fluorophore could include a variety of differentcompounds, chemicals, or other structures. In examples wherein thepH-sensitive fluorophore has a fluorescence intensity that decreaseswith pH (as with the example intensity function 210), the pH-sensitivefluorophore could include pH-sensitive boron-dipyrromethene dyes,derivatives of nile red, squaraine, squaraine rotaxane, or some othersubstance(s) having a fluorescence intensity that decreases withincreases in pH over one or more ranges of pH values. In exampleswherein the pH-sensitive fluorophore has a fluorescence intensity thatincreases with pH, the pH-sensitive fluorophore could includefluorescein, a fluorescein derivative, or some other substance(s) havinga fluorescence intensity that increases with increases in pH over one ormore ranges of pH values.

The change in the fluorescence intensity function 200 across thesensitive range of pH values 210 could allow the pH in the environmentof the fluorophore to be detected optically. That is, the fluorescenceintensity of the fluorophore could be optically detected (e.g., byilluminating the fluorophore with light having a specified intensityand/or wavelength and detecting the intensity or other property orresponsively emitted fluorescent light from the fluorophore) and used todetermine the pH, based on knowledge of the fluorescence intensityfunction 200. The sensitivity of such a detection (e.g., a minimumdetectable change in the pH) could be related to the rate of change ofthe fluorescence intensity function 200 (that is, the slope of thefunction 200) with respect to changes in pH. That is, the greater themagnitude of the slope, the more the fluorescence intensity changes withpH, and thus the greater the sensitivity of optical detection of the pHusing the fluorophore.

As noted above, a pH-sensitive fluorophore can be used to opticallydetect pH in an environment of the pH-sensitive fluorophore. Otherphysical variables that are related to the detected pH (e.g., theconcentration of an acid) could be detected based on such a detected pHand/or detected fluorescence intensity. Thus, the pH-sensitivefluorophore could be used to detect the concentration of an analyte ofinterest by making the pH in the environment of the pH-sensitivefluorophore be affected by the pH in the environment. This could includeadding a pH-transducing agent that is configured to provide a local pHthat is related to the concentration of the analyte. Such apH-transducing agent could be configured to selectively bind to orotherwise selectively interact with (e.g., catalyze a reaction of) theanalyte to provide the local pH.

In some examples, the transducer agent could be an ionophore, and theanalyte could be an ion that the ionophore is configured to bind.Binding of the ion by the ionophore could cause a change in the localconcentration of hydrogen (e.g., by the hydrogen being attracted orrepelled by the charged ion bound to the ionophore), thus changing thelocal pH. The ion could be sodium, calcium, chlorine, potassium, acharged protein, or some other ion of interest. Accordingly, thetransducer agent could include a crown ether, a calixarene, a cryptand,or some other substance configured to selectively bind to one or moreions of interest.

As noted above, the sensitivity of optical detection of pH (or ofdetection of an analyte of interest whose concentration affects a localpH) can be related to the rate of change of the fluorescence intensityof a pH-sensitive fluorophore with changes in the pH. To increase thesensitivity of the optical detection of the pH (or the optical detectionof an analyte whose concentration is related to the pH), the rate ofchange of the fluorescence intensity of the pH-sensitive fluorophorewith changes in pH could be increased within a range of pH values ofinterest. Additionally or alternatively, the local pH of thepH-sensitive fluorophore could be shifted (e.g., by adding an ionicadditive) such that a range of local pH values across which thepH-sensitive fluorophore is sensitive (e.g., the sensitive range 210)corresponds to a range of pH values of interest, or to a correspondingrange of concentration values of an analyte of interest.

To increase the slope of the fluorescence intensity function of apH-sensitive fluorophore (that is, to increase the slope above somelevel that is intrinsic to the pH-sensitive fluorophore), a pH-sensitivequenching agent could be added to the fluorophore. Such a pH-sensitivequencher could act to reduce the fluorescence intensity of thepH-sensitive fluorophore (i.e., to quench the pH-sensitive fluorophore)in a manner that is dependent on the local pH in the environment of thepH-sensitive quencher and pH-sensitive fluorophore. Thus, properties ofthe pH-sensitive quencher (e.g., a dependence on the local pH of thedegree to which the pH-sensitive quencher quenches the pH-sensitivefluorophore) could be matched to the pH-sensitive fluorophore such thata quencher-modified fluorescence intensity function of the pH-sensitivefluorophore has a greater slope within a range of pH values of interest(e.g., a range of pH values that correspond to a range of concentrationsof an analyte) than the fluorophore's intrinsic intensity function.

As noted above, a pH-sensitive quencher could be added to a pH-sensitivefluorophore (such that the pH-sensitive quencher acts to quench thepH-sensitive fluorophore) to increase the sensitivity of thepH-sensitive fluorophore to changes in pH. This could include adding apH-sensitive quencher that decreases its quenching with increasing pH toa pH-sensitive fluorophore that increases its fluorescence intensitywith increasing pH. In such an example, a quencher-modified fluorescenceintensity of the pH-sensitive fluorophore could increase with pH acrossa specified range of pH values at a rate of change that is greater thanthe rate of change of the intrinsic fluorescence intensity of thepH-sensitive fluorophore across the specified range of pH values.Alternatively, a pH-sensitive quencher that increases its quenching withincreasing pH could be added to a pH-sensitive fluorophore thatdecreases its fluorescence intensity with increasing pH. In such anexample, a quencher-modified fluorescence intensity of the pH-sensitivefluorophore could decrease with pH across a specified range of pH valuesat a rate of change that is greater than the rate of change of theintrinsic fluorescence intensity of the pH-sensitive fluorophore acrossthe specified range of pH values.

The use of a pH-sensitive quencher to increase the sensitivity of apH-sensitive fluorophore is illustrated by way of example in FIGS. 3Aand 3B. FIG. 3A illustrates an example degree of quenching function 350a of a pH-sensitive quencher as a function of the pH in the environmentof the quencher (e.g., as a function of a local pH within ananalyte-sensitive substance that includes the quencher and apH-sensitive fluorophore that is being quenched by the pH-sensitivequencher). As illustrated in FIG. 3A, the quenching function 350 aincreases as a function of the pH. Specifically, the pH-sensitivequencher minimally quenches (e.g., effectively does not quench) thepH-sensitive fluorophore at low values of pH. Conversely, thepH-sensitive quencher maximally quenches the fluorophore at high valuesof pH. The degree of quenching of the pH-sensitive quencher graduallyincreases from the low level to the high level as the pH increasesacross an indicated sensitive range 355 a of pH values.

A pH-sensitive quencher having such a pH-dependent quenching function350 a could be added to a pH-sensitive fluorophore that decreases itsfluorescence intensity with increasing pH (e.g., as shown in FIG. 2)such that a quencher-modified fluorescence intensity of the pH-sensitivefluorophore decreases with increasing pH at a greater rate, across arange of pH values of interest, than an intrinsic intensity function ofthe pH-sensitive fluorophore. This is illustrated by way of example inFIG. 3B. FIG. 3B shows the fluorescence intensity function 200 of FIG.2B overlaid on the quenching function 350 a of FIG. 3A, along with thosefunctions' respective sensitive ranges 210, 355 a, which partiallyoverlap. FIG. 3B also shows, overlaid on the other functions 200, 350 a,a quencher-modified fluorescence intensity function 300 a of thepH-sensitive fluorophore when in the presence of the pH-sensitivequencher. The quencher-modified fluorescence intensity function 300 adecreases at a second rate of change 320 across the particular range ofpH values 215 that is also indicated in FIG. 2.

As shown in FIG. 3B, the second rate of change 320 of thequencher-modified fluorescence intensity function 300 a shown in FIG. 3Bis greater in magnitude than the first rate of change 220 of theintrinsic fluorescence intensity function 200 of the pH-sensitivefluorophore shown in FIG. 2. This can be related to the increasingactivity of the pH-sensitive quencher to quench the pH-sensitivefluorophore across the particular range of pH values 215. As a result,the sensitivity of a sensor that includes the pH-sensitive fluorophoreand pH-sensitive quencher to pH values within the particular range of pHvalues 215 could be greater than a sensor that omits the pH-sensitivequencher.

Note that the illustrated degree of quenching function 350 a andquencher-modified fluorescence intensity function 320 are intended asnon-limiting examples. For instance, the quenching function of apH-sensitive quencher could have other shapes, could be non-monotonic(that is, could decrease with pH over some ranges of pH and increaseover other ranges), could be low at low values of pH and/or high at highvalues of pH, or could have some other properties. Further, thequenching activity of a pH-sensitive quencher could be dependent of thewavelength at which the pH-sensitive quencher is quenching; for example,a pH-sensitive quencher could increase, with increasing pH, its degreeof quenching at a first wavelength while decreasing its degree ofquenching at a second wavelength.

Note that the principles described herein could also be applied toincrease the sensitivity of a pH-sensitive fluorophore that increasesits fluorescence intensity with increasing pH by adding, e.g., apH-sensitive quencher that decreases a degree of quenching of thepH-sensitive fluorophore with increasing pH. Further, multiplepH-sensitive quenchers, having respective difference pH-dependentquenching functions, could be added to a single pH-sensitive fluorophoreto, e.g., increase the magnitude of the rate of change of thefluorescence intensity of the pH-sensitive fluorophore across multiplerespective ranges of pH values.

A pH-sensitive quencher could include a variety of different compounds,chemicals, or other structures. The pH-sensitive quencher could includea spiropyran, a derivative of nile red dye, coumarin, a derivative ofcoumarin, alizarin, a derivative of alizarin, or some other substancethat can quench the fluorescence of a fluorophore in a pH-dependentmanner. In some examples, the pH-sensitive quencher could be ablueberry-derived ester (e.g., one of the BLU series pH sensitivequenchers available from Berry and Associates) or a blackberry-derivedphosphoramidite (e.g., one of the BBQ series pH sensitive quenchersavailable from Berry and Associates).

The pH-sensitive quencher could be a dark quencher (e.g., could act toquench a fluorophore by absorbing energy from the excited fluorophoreand dissipating the absorbed energy as heat), could dissipate energyreceived from an excited fluorophore as an emitted fluorescent photon,or could quench a fluorophore by some other mechanism. The pH-sensitivequencher could act to quench a fluorophore by absorbing energy within arange of wavelengths; in such examples, the range of absorbancewavelengths of the pH-sensitive quencher could be matched to anexcitation and/or emission spectrum of a pH-sensitive fluorophore.Further, the pH-sensitive quencher could be selected such that a rangeover which the quencher increases or decreases its degree of quenching(e.g., 355 a) is matched to (e.g., partially overlapping with) a rangeover which the pH-sensitive fluorophore increases or decreases itsfluorescence intensity (e.g., 210).

As noted above, a pH-sensitive fluorophore and/or a combination of apH-sensitive fluorophore and a pH-sensitive quencher could have apH-dependent fluorescence intensity that is highly sensitive to changesin pH across a specific range of pH values (e.g., 210, 215). Ananalyte-sensitive substance could include such substances in addition toa pH-transducing substance (e.g., an ionophore) that is configured toprovide a local pH within the analyte-sensitive substance that isrelated to the concentration of an analyte proximate theanalyte-sensitive substance. Such an analyte-sensitive substance couldthen be optically interrogated (e.g., as described by example incombination with FIG. 1) to detect the concentration of the analyteproximate the analyte-sensitive substance (e.g., a concentration withina tissue, a bodily fluid, or some other environment of interestproximate to the analyte-sensitive substance).

The analyte-sensitive substance could be configured to be sensitive tothe concentration of an analyte over a range of concentrations ofinterest (e.g., a range of physiologically relevant concentrations ofthe analyte). This could be achieved by controlling properties of thepH-transducing substance (e.g., an amount or concentration of anionophore) such that the range of concentrations of interest correspondto a range of local pH values over which the fluorescence intensity ofthe pH-sensitive fluorophore and/or pH-sensitive quencher is increasingor decreasing (e.g., 215). Additionally or alternatively, an amount ofan ionic additive could be added to the analyte-sensitive substance toshift the local pH within the analyte-sensitive substance such that therange of concentrations of interest corresponds to a range of local pHvalues over which the fluorescence intensity of the pH-sensitivefluorophore and/or pH-sensitive quencher is increasing or decreasing(e.g., 215).

Such ionic additives could include anionic or cationic substances. Suchsubstances could include weakly interacting and/or non-coordinatinganions or cations. Such ionic additives could affect a local pH byhaving a charge that attracts or repels hydrogen ions, by facilitatingion-proton exchange, and/or via some other processes, thus changing alocal pH by an amount related to the amount of the charge, the amount orconcentration of the ionic additive, or other factors. Such ionicadditives could include tetrakis[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]boronsodium, tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)boron lithium ethyl etherate,tetra(p-tolyl)boron sodium, tetra(p-tolyl)boron sodium,tetrakis(4-tert-butylphenyl)boron potassium, tetraphenylboron lithiumtris(1,2-dimethoxyethane), tetrakis(4-chlorophenyl)boron potassium, ortridodecylammonium chloride.

To illustrate the use of an ionic additive to shift the local pH withinan analyte-sensitive substance and/or to increase the sensitivity ofsuch an analyte-sensitive substance to concentrations of an analytewithin a range of concentrations of interest, FIG. 4A illustrates theexample fluorescence intensity function 200 of a fluorophore as afunction of the pH within an analyte-sensitive substance. Therelationship between the fluorescence intensity function 200 and thelocal pH within the analyte-sensitive substance is indicated by the pHvalues on the horizontal axis of FIG. 4A. The analyte-sensitivesubstance additionally includes a pH-transducing substance (e.g., anionophore) that provides the local pH according to the concentration ofan analyte (e.g., an ion) in an environment of interest to which theanalyte-sensitive substance is exposed. The relationship between thelocal pH and the concentration of the analyte is indicated by thecorrespondence between the pH values and the concentration values on thehorizontal axis of FIG. 4A. A specified range of concentrations ofinterest 410 of the analyte is also indicated.

As shown in FIG. 4A, the range of concentrations of interest 410corresponds to a range of local pH values over which theanalyte-sensitive substance is not sensitive, that is, a range of localpH values over which the fluorescence intensity function 200 does notsignificantly change. In order to use the analyte-sensitive substance todetect concentrations of the analyte within the range of concentrationsof interest 410, an amount of an ionic additive could be added to theanalyte-sensitive substance to shift the local pH within theanalyte-sensitive substance such that the range of concentrations ofinterest 410 corresponds to a range of local pH values over which thefluorescence intensity 200 is increasing or decreasing (e.g., theindicated range of pH values 210). This is illustrated in FIG. 4B,wherein the local pH has been shifted downward by approximately 4.5. Asa result, the relationship between the local pH and the concentration ofthe analyte (as indicated on the horizontal axis of FIG. 4B) is shiftedsuch that the range of concentrations of interest 410 corresponds to therange of local pH values over which the fluorescence intensity isdecreasing 210.

FIGS. 4C and 4D illustrate the use of two different ionic additives,tridodecylammonium chloride (TDMACl) andtetrakis[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]boron sodium (NaBARF), to shiftthe local pH within an analyte-sensitive substance and thus to controlthe correspondence between the fluorescence intensity of a pH-sensitivefluorophore (or a combination of a pH-sensitive fluorophore and apH-sensitive quencher) and the concentration of an analyte in anenvironment of interest to which the analyte-sensitive substance isexposed.

The type of the ionic additive (i.e., anionic or cationic) affects thedirection in which the local pH is shifted. FIG. 4C shows the normalizedfluorescence intensity of an analyte-sensitive substance as a functionof the pH in an environment to which the analyte-sensitive substance isexposed. The normalized fluorescence intensity of the analyte-sensitivesubstance without any ionic additives is indicated by the squares.Addition of a cationic ionic additive (in this example, TDMACl) shiftsthe normalized fluorescence intensity, as a function of external pH, tothe left (indicated by the diamonds). Addition of an anionic ionicadditive (in this example, NaBARF) shifts the normalized fluorescenceintensity, as a function of external pH, to the right (indicated by thecircles).

An amount of an ionic additive added to an analyte-sensitive substancecan affect the amount by which the local pH is shifted. FIG. 4D showsthe normalized fluorescence intensity of an analyte-sensitive substanceas a function of the pH in an environment to which the analyte-sensitivesubstance is exposed. The normalized fluorescence intensity of theanalyte-sensitive substance with the addition of a baseline amount ofTDMACl (“1×”) is indicated by the squares. Increasing the amount of theTDMACl by 50% (“1.5×”) shifts the normalized fluorescence intensity tolower pH values (i.e., to the left), as indicated by the diamonds.Further increasing the amount of the TDMACl, to twice the baselineamount (“2×”), further shifts the normalized fluorescence intensity tothe left (i.e., to lower pH values), as indicated by the circles.

An analyte-sensitive substance as described herein could includemultiple fluorophores that are sensitive to (i.e., that havefluorescence intensities that increase or decrease with increasing pHvalues) respective difference ranges of pH values (and thus torespective different corresponding ranges of concentrations of ananalyte). Additionally or alternatively, an analyte-sensitive substancecould include a first pH-sensitive fluorophore that increases influorescence intensity across a range of pH values and a secondpH-sensitive fluorophore that decreases in fluorescence intensity acrossthe range of pH values. Detecting the fluorescence intensities of thefirst and second pH-sensitive fluorophores could allow the pH within theanalyte-sensitive substance and/or the concentration of an analyte to bedetermined with higher precision and/or accuracy, e.g., according to adifference or ratio of the detected fluorescence intensities. This couldinclude using the detected fluorescence intensity of one or both of thepH-sensitive fluorophores to account for an amount of backgroundfluorescence of the analyte-sensitive substance, to account for atemperature-dependence of the fluorescence of one or both of thepH-sensitive fluorophores, or to determine a local pH and/orconcentration of an analyte according to some other method.

FIG. 5 illustrates a first example fluorescence intensity function 200of a first pH-sensitive fluorophore as a function of a local pH withinan analyte-sensitive substance. As illustrated in FIG. 5, the firstfluorescence intensity function 200 decreases as a function of the localpH. FIG. 5 also illustrates, superimposed on the first examplefluorescence intensity function 200, a second example fluorescenceintensity function 500 of a second pH-sensitive fluorophore whichdecreases as a function of the local pH. The fluorescence intensity ofthe first pH-sensitive fluorophore gradually decreases as the pHincreases across an indicated first sensitive range 210 of pH values,the fluorescence intensity of the second pH-sensitive fluorophoregradually increases as the pH increases across an indicated secondsensitive range 510 of pH values, and the first and second range atleast partially overlap.

As a result, the local pH (or an analyte concentration that is relatedto the local pH) can be determined based on the detected fluorescenceintensities of the first and second fluorophores. The first and secondfluorophores can differ with respect to an emission spectrum, anexcitation spectrum, a fluorescence lifetime, and/or some other opticalproperties such that the fluorescence intensities of the first andsecond fluorophores can be independently detected (e.g., by emittingrespective first and second lights at respective different first andsecond excitation wavelengths of the first and second fluorophoresand/or by detecting light emitted from the first and second fluorophoresat respective different first and second emission wavelengths). Thefirst and second fluorophores could be selected such that theyrespectively increase and decrease in fluorescence intensity over acommon range of pH values. Additionally or alternatively, an ionicadditive could be added to shift the local pH experienced by one or bothof the fluorophores. This could include localizing an ionic additiveproximate to one of the fluorophores but not the other, e.g., by formingthe a first fluorophore and an optional first ionic additive into afirst plurality of nanoparticles of the analyte-sensitive substance andby forming the second fluorophore and an optional second ionic additiveinto a second plurality of nanoparticles of the analyte-sensitivesubstance.

III. Example Analyte-Sensitive Substances

As noted above, a variety of pH-sensitive fluorophores, pH-sensitivequenchers, pH-transducing agents (e.g., ionophores), ionic additives, orother substances can be formed into an analyte-sensitive substance suchthat a pH, or the concentration of an analyte, can be detected byoptically interrogating (e.g., illuminating and detecting lightresponsively emitted from) the analyte-sensitive substance. Suchsubstances could be disposed within an analyte-permeable material (e.g.,a hydrogel) to form an analyte-sensitive substance and theanalyte-sensitive substance could be disposed on a surface, formed intoa solid, implanted into a tissue, or configured in some other way toallow the concentration of an analyte in an environment of interest tobe detected.

The effectiveness of a pH-sensitive quencher in quenching a fluorophore(e.g., a pH-sensitive fluorophore) could be related to the proximitybetween the quencher and the fluorophore. Similarly, the effectivenessof an ionic additive or an ionophore in controlling a local pH of apH-sensitive fluorophore and/or a pH-sensitive quencher could be relatedto the proximity between the ionic additive or ionophore and thequencher and/or fluorophore. Thus, an analyte-sensitive substance couldbe formed such that such elements of the substance are proximate eachother. For instance, such substances could be collocated within aplurality of nanoparticles. A pH-sensitive fluorophore, a pH-sensitivequencher, an ionic additive, an ionophore, or some other elements of theanalyte-sensitive substance could be disposed within the cores or otherspecified regions (e.g., within a bilayer of a liposome) of suchnanoparticles such that the distance between the various elements isless than, at most, the diameter or some other dimension (e.g., athickness of a liposomal wall) of the nanoparticles. Containingfluorophores and quenchers within nanoparticles can facilitateinteraction between the fluorophores and the quenchers via Forsterresonance energy transfer (FRET) effects, inner-filter effects, or otherquenching processes that are facilitated by close proximity between afluorophore and a quencher. Such nanoparticles could then be disposed ona surface (e.g., a surface of a sensor probe, within ananalyte-permeable polymer layer disposed on such a surface), distributedthroughout a volume (e.g., a volume of an analyte-permeable polymer), ordisposed in some other way such that the nanoparticles are exposed to ananalyte and/or a pH of an environment of interest and such that thefluorophores of the substance can be optically interrogated.

FIG. 6 illustrates an example analyte-sensitive substance 610 thatincludes a plurality of nanoparticles 601 within which first 603 a andsecond 603 b pH-sensitive fluorophores, pH-sensitive quenchers 604, andionic additives 605 are disposed. The nanoparticles are disposed in ananalyte-permeable substance 619. The analyte can flow between anenvironment of interest 605 and the analyte-sensitive substance 610(indicated by the large arrows 606) and between the analyte-permeablesubstance 619 and the cores of the nanoparticles 601 (indicated by thelarge arrows 607). A light emitter 620 emits illumination 625 to excitethe fluorophores 603 a, 603 b and a light sensor 630 detects anintensity, wavelength, or other properties of responsively emitted light635 from the fluorophores 603 a, 603 b.

Note that the nanoparticles 601 include first 601 a and second 601 btypes of nanoparticles. This could allow different elements of theanalyte-sensitive substance 601 to be physically proximate to certainelements of the analyte-sensitive substance 601 but not to otherelements of the analyte-sensitive substance 601. For example, thepH-sensitive quencher 604 could be disposed only within the firstnanoparticles 601 a such that the quencher 604 quenches the firstpH-sensitive fluorophore 603 a but not the second pH-sensitivefluorophore 603 b. In another example, the ionic additive 605 could bedisposed only within the second nanoparticles 601 b such that the ionicadditive 605 alters the local pH of the second pH-sensitive fluorophore603 b but not the local pH of the first pH-sensitive fluorophore 603 a.

In some examples, the first 603 a and second 603 b fluorophores coulddiffer with respect to an excitation spectrum, an emission spectrum, orsome other property such that the fluorescence intensities of the first603 a and second 603 b fluorophores could be independently detected. Insuch examples, the first 601 a and second 601 b nanoparticles couldinclude the same ionophore (or other analyte-selective pH-transducingagent) to enable the detection (e.g., ratiometrically) of the same ion(or other analyte), or the first 601 a and second 601 b nanoparticlescould include different ionophores to allow for detection of differentions.

Note that the illustrated configuration of elements of ananalyte-sensitive substance is intended as a non-limiting example. Ananalyte-sensitive substance could include more or fewer types ofnanoparticles, and such nanoparticles could be configured differentlythan the example nanoparticles illustrated in FIG. 6. For instance, thenanoparticles could be liposomes, and the fluorophores, quenchers,ionophores, and/or other elements of the analyte-sensitive substancecould be disposed within the walls of the liposomes.

Nanoparticles of an analyte-sensitive substance as described herein(e.g., 601) could be formed in a variety of ways. In some examples, anonpolar solution (e.g., a solution that includes an organic solventlike tetrahydrofuran and/or dichloromethane) containing elements of thenanoparticles (e.g., a pH-sensitive fluorophore, a pH-sensitivequencher, an ionophore, an ionic additive, or some other element(s))could be created. In such examples, the elements are themselves composedof hydrophobic or amphiphilic materials or compounds. The solution couldthen be added to an aqueous solution such that the hydrophobic elementsin the nonpolar solution form into nanoparticles. The nonpolar solutioncould then be removed (e.g., by evaporation. The formed nanoparticlescould then be disposed on a surface, disposed within ananalyte-permeable substance (e.g., a polymer, a hydrogel).

In some examples, such formation into nanoparticles could be facilitatedby the presence of an amphiphilic compound in the nonpolar solutionand/or in the aqueous solution. Nanoparticles formed in such a way couldinclude a layer of such an amphiphilic compound (illustrated as layers602 in FIG. 6) that contains a core of hydrophobic substances (e.g., oneor more pH-sensitive fluorophores, pH-sensitive quenchers, ionicadditives, ionophores, and/or other substances). The nanoparticles couldinclude one or more of a variety of amphiphilic compounds, e.g., anamphiphilic block copolymer, a detergent, a surfactant, DSPE-PEG,Pluronic, PLA-PEG, polyethylene glycol sorbitan monooleate, Surfactol,D-α-tocopherol polyethylene glycol succinate, or some other amphiphilicsubstance(s). Further, properties of the amphiphilic compound could bespecified to control properties of the nanoparticles, e.g., a diameterof the nanoparticles, a thickness of a formed layer 602 of theamphiphilic compound of the nanoparticles, a rate or degree of flux ofan analyte through the layer 602 of the amphiphilic compound, or someother properties. For example, a length of a nonpolar aspect of theamphiphilic compound (e.g., a length of a PEG chain of the compound)could be specified to control a thickness of the formed layer of theamphiphilic compound.

The nanoparticles could be formed from a mixture of nonpolar and aqueoussolutions as described above in a variety of ways. In some examples, theamphiphilic compound could be disposed in the aqueous solution and theaqueous solution could be sonicated (e.g., exposed to ultrasonicacoustical energy) while the nonpolar solution including thepH-sensitive fluorophore, pH-sensitive quencher, ionic additive, and/orionophore is added to the aqueous solution. In a particular example, thenonpolar solution comprises an organic solvent of tetrahydrofuran (THF)and dichloromethane (DCM) in a ratio between approximately 1:1 toapproximately 1:50 THF:DCM. The aqueous solution includes less thanapproximately 1% weight/volume of the amphiphilic compound and issonicated while the nonpolar solution is injected into the aqueoussolution. The aqueous solution is sonicated via probe-tip sonication,horn sonication, or bath sonication for between approximately 1 minuteand approximately 5 minutes. After sonication, the organic solvent canbe evaporated by applying a vacuum to the solution and/or by blowing dryair or nitrogen past the solution. Additionally or alternatively, theamphiphilic compound could be present in the nonpolar solvent solutionbefore the nonpolar solvent is added to the aqueous solution.

The nanoparticles could also be formed by using an organic solvent thatis miscible in water to form the nonpolar solution that contains thepH-sensitive fluorophore, pH-sensitive quencher, ionic additive,ionophore, or other hydrophobic elements of the nanoparticles. Theorganic solvent could further have a lower boiling point than waterand/or be more volatile than water in order to allow for evaporation ofthe organic solvent. For example, the organic solvent could include THF.In a particular example, THF or some other organic solvent could beadded to an aqueous solution in a volume ratio of between approximately1:20 and approximately 1:4 THF:water. The nonpolar solution containingthe organic solvent, the hydrophobic elements of the nanoparticles,and/or the amphiphilic compound could be injected into the aqueoussolution and the mixture could be vigorously stirred for betweenapproximately 10 seconds and approximately 10 minutes. The organicsolvent could then be evaporated by applying a vacuum to the solutionand/or by blowing dry air or nitrogen past the solution.

IV. Example Methods

FIG. 7 is a flowchart of a method 700 for measuring an analyteconcentration in an environment of interest using an analyte-sensitivesubstance, e.g., to detect the concentration of an ion in a tissue or afluid of a body. The analyte-sensitive substance includes a pH-sensitivefluorophore and an analyte-selective pH-transducing agent (e.g., anionophore). The pH-transducing agent is configured to provide a local pHwithin the analyte-sensitive substance that is related to theconcentration of the analyte proximate the analyte-sensitive substance(e.g., to the concentration of an analyte in a tissue or fluid of abody). The pH-sensitive fluorophore has a fluorescence intensity thatincreases or decreases with changes in the local pH. Theanalyte-sensitive substance could further include one or more of apH-sensitive quencher, an ionic additive, or some other elements asdescribed elsewhere herein.

The method 700 includes illuminating, the analyte-sensitive substancesuch that the pH-sensitive fluorophore of the analyte-sensitivesubstance is excited (702). This could include illuminating theanalyte-sensitive substance with light at one or more specifiedwavelengths, e.g., an excitation wavelength of the pH-sensitivefluorophore and/or an excitation wavelength of one or more otherfluorophores in the analyte-sensitive substance. The analyte-sensitivesubstance could be disposed as part of a device that includes a lightemitter used to provide the illumination, and such a device could beplaced in contact with an environment of interest. Alternatively, theanalyte-sensitive substance could be disposed on or within theenvironment of interest (e.g., beneath a skin surface) and could beilluminated by a light emitter that is separate from theanalyte-sensitive substance, e.g., by a light emitter that is configuredto illuminate the analyte-sensitive substance through a skin surface.

The method 700 additionally includes detecting light emitted from theanalyte-sensitive substance responsive to being illuminated (704). Asnoted above in relation to illumination of the analyte-sensitivesubstance, a light sensor used to detect the responsively emitted lightcould be part of a device that includes the analyte-sensitive substance;alternatively, the analyte-sensitive substance could be separate fromthe light sensor and the light sensor could be configured to detect thelight via a skin surface or through some other intervening space ormaterial. An intensity, a spectrum, an intensity at one or morewavelengths, a polarization, or some other property of the responsivelyemitted light. For example, the intensity of light at an emissionwavelength of the pH-sensitive fluorophore could be detected. Further,the intensity of light at emission wavelengths of one or more furtherfluorophores (e.g., one or more further pH-sensitive fluorophores) inthe analyte-sensitive substance could be detected.

The method 700 additionally includes determining the concentration ofthe analyte proximate the analyte-sensitive substance based on thedetected light (706). This could include using a formula, lookup table,or other method to determine the concentration based on a detectedintensity of the light or based on some other detected property of theresponsively emitted light. In some examples, the analyte-sensitivesubstance could include multiple different pH-sensitive fluorophores(e.g., a first fluorophore that increases fluorescence intensity over arange of pH values and a second fluorophore that decreases fluorescenceintensity over the range of pH values) and the concentration could bedetermined based on a difference, a ratio, or some other detectedproperties of lights emitted from the multiple different pH-sensitivefluorophores. Determining a concentration based on a detected light(706) could include other operations.

The method 700 could include additional steps. For example, the method700 could include determining a health state, a course of treatment, adose and/or timing of administration of a drug, or some otherinformation based on a determined concentration and/or detected opticalproperties. The method 700 could include indicating such detected ordetermined information using a user interface, a radio, or some othermeans. The method 700 could include emplacing the analyte-sensitivesubstance and/or a device that includes the analyte-sensitive substanceon, within, or otherwise in contact with an environment of interest,e.g., by implanting the analyte-sensitive substance within a tissue, bypenetrating a tissue with a probe that includes the analyte-sensitivesubstance, by mounting a device to a skin surface, or by some othermethod. Additional and/or alternative steps, or alternative embodimentsof the listed steps, are anticipated.

FIG. 8 is a flowchart of a method 800 for creating a plurality ofnanoparticles of an ion-sensitive substance as described elsewhereherein. The method 800 includes forming a first solution that includes(i) an organic solvent, (ii) an ionophore, and (iii) a pH-sensitivefluorophore (802). The solution could be formed using an organicsolvent, e.g., tetrahyrdofuran (THF), dichloromethane (DCM), or someother nonpolar solvents. Correspondingly, the ionophore, thepH-sensitive fluorophore, and other elements of the solution couldinclude hydrophobic materials. The solution could include additionalelements, e.g., an ionic additive, a pH-sensitive quencher, anamphiphilic compound, or some other elements according to anapplication.

The method 800 additionally includes combining the first solution withan aqueous solution, wherein one of the first solution and the aqueoussolution includes an amphiphilic compound (804). As noted above, theamphiphilic compound could be part of the first solution. Additionallyor alternatively, the amphiphilic compound could be part of the aqueoussolution. The first solution could be added to the aqueous solution insuch a way that the organic solvent could be evaporated to form aplurality of nanoparticles that include a layer of the amphiphiliccompound containing the hydrophobic elements of the first solution(e.g., the pH-sensitive fluorophore, the ionophore, a pH-sensitivequencher, an ionic additive). The formed nanoparticles could bemicelles, liposome, or some other form of nanoparticle. This couldinclude sonicating the aqueous solution while the first solution isadded, vigorously mixing the combination of the first solution and theaqueous solution, or some other method of thoroughly mixing the firstsolution and the aqueous solution.

The method also includes evaporating the organic solvent to form aplurality of nanoparticles such that each of the nanoparticles includesthe pH-sensitive fluorophore and the ionophore enclosed within a layerof the amphiphilic compound (806). This could include applying a vacuumto the combined first solution and aqueous solution. Additionally oralternatively, the dry air or nitrogen could be blown past the solutioncombined first solution and aqueous solution. Some other method could beused to remove the organic solvent.

The method 800 could include additional steps. The method 800 couldinclude forming a polymer that contains the formed nanoparticles (e.g.,a hydrogel or some other polymer material). The method 800 couldadditionally or alternatively include disposing the nanoparticles on asurface, e.g., a surface of an optical sensor, a surface of a sensorprobe, or some other surface. The method 800 could be performed multipletimes to produced multiple different types of nanoparticles (e.g., afirst type of nanoparticle that includes a first pH-sensitivefluorophore and a second type of nanoparticle that includes a secondpH-sensitive fluorophore); the multiple types of nanoparticles couldthen be disposed in a polymer or other material to form ananalyte-sensitive substance. Additional and/or alternative steps, oralternative embodiments of the listed steps, are anticipated.

V. Conclusion

Where example embodiments involve information related to a person or adevice of a person, the embodiments should be understood to includeprivacy controls. Such privacy controls include, at least, anonymizationof device identifiers, transparency and user controls, includingfunctionality that would enable users to modify or delete informationrelating to the user's use of a product.

Further, in situations in where embodiments discussed herein collectpersonal information about users, or may make use of personalinformation, the users may be provided with an opportunity to controlwhether programs or features collect user information (e.g., informationabout a user's medical history, social network, social actions oractivities, profession, a user's preferences, or a user's currentlocation), or to control whether and/or how to receive content from thecontent server that may be more relevant to the user. In addition,certain data may be treated in one or more ways before it is stored orused, so that personally identifiable information is removed. Forexample, a user's identity may be treated so that no personallyidentifiable information can be determined for the user, or a user'sgeographic location may be generalized where location information isobtained (such as to a city, ZIP code, or state level), so that aparticular location of a user cannot be determined. Thus, the user mayhave control over how information is collected about the user and usedby a content server.

The particular arrangements shown in the Figures should not be viewed aslimiting. It should be understood that other embodiments may includemore or less of each element shown in a given Figure. Further, some ofthe illustrated elements may be combined or omitted. Yet further, anexemplary embodiment may include elements that are not illustrated inthe Figures.

Additionally, while various aspects and embodiments have been disclosedherein, other aspects and embodiments will be apparent to those skilledin the art. The various aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are forpurposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting, with thetrue scope and spirit being indicated by the following claims. Otherembodiments may be utilized, and other changes may be made, withoutdeparting from the spirit or scope of the subject matter presentedherein. It will be readily understood that the aspects of the presentdisclosure, as generally described herein, and illustrated in thefigures, can be arranged, substituted, combined, separated, and designedin a wide variety of different configurations, all of which arecontemplated herein.

What is claimed is:
 1. A sensor comprising: an analyte-sensitivesubstance, wherein the analyte-sensitive substance comprises: anionophore, wherein the ionophore is configured to provide a local pHwithin the analyte-sensitive substance related to a concentration of ananalyte proximate the analyte-sensitive substance; a pH-sensitivefluorophore, wherein the pH-sensitive fluorophore is configured tofluoresce with a fluorescence intensity that increases or decreases as afunction of the local pH over a range of pH values according to anintrinsic intensity function; and a pH-sensitive quencher, wherein thepH-sensitive quencher is configured to quench the pH-sensitivefluorophore via Forster resonance energy transfer to an extent thatincreases or decreases as a function of the local pH within the range ofpH values, such that the pH-sensitive fluorophore in combination withthe pH-sensitive quencher is configured to fluoresce with a fluorescenceintensity that increases or decreases as a function of the local pH overthe range of pH values according to a quencher-modified intensityfunction that exhibits an increased rate of change of fluorescenceintensity over the range of pH values relative to the intrinsicintensity function of the pH-sensitive fluorophore.
 2. The sensor ofclaim 1, further comprising: a light emitter, wherein the light emitteris configured to illuminate the analyte-sensitive substance such thatthe pH-sensitive fluorophore is excited; and a light sensor, wherein thelight sensor is configured to detect light emitted from theanalyte-sensitive substance responsive to the analyte-sensitivesubstance being illuminated by the light emitter.
 3. The sensor of claim1, wherein the pH-sensitive fluorophore is configured to fluoresce witha fluorescence intensity that decreases as a function of the local pHover the range of pH values, and wherein the quencher is configured toquench the pH-sensitive fluorophore to an extent that increases as afunction of the local pH within the range of pH values.
 4. The sensor ofclaim 1, wherein the pH-sensitive fluorophore is configured to fluorescewith a fluorescence intensity that increases as a function of the localpH over the range of pH values, and wherein the quencher is configuredto quench the pH-sensitive fluorophore to an extent that decreases as afunction of the local pH within the range of pH values.
 5. The sensor ofclaim 1, wherein the analyte-sensitive substance further comprises: anionic additive, wherein the ionic additive comprises one of an anionicadditive or a cationic additive, wherein the ionic additive isconfigured to one of raise or lower the local pH, and wherein an amountof the ionic additive in the analyte-sensitive substance is specifiedsuch that a presence of the analyte proximate the analyte-sensitivesubstance within a specified range of concentrations results in thelocal pH having a value within the range of pH values.
 6. The sensor ofclaim 5, further comprising a plurality of nanoparticles, wherein eachnanoparticle of the plurality of nanoparticles comprises an enclosinglayer composed of an amphiphilic compound and the enclosing layerencloses the pH-sensitive fluorophore, the pH-sensitive quencher, andthe ionic additive.
 7. The sensor of claim 1, further comprising aplurality of nanoparticles, wherein each nanoparticle of the pluralityof nanoparticles comprises an enclosing layer composed of an amphiphiliccompound and the enclosing layer encloses the pH-sensitive fluorophoreand the pH-sensitive quencher.
 8. The sensor of claim 7, wherein theanalyte-sensitive substance further comprises an analyte-permeablepolymer, wherein the plurality of nanoparticles are disposed within theanalyte-permeable polymer.
 9. The sensor of claim 1, wherein theanalyte-sensitive substance further comprises: a further pH-sensitivefluorophore, wherein the further pH-sensitive fluorophore is configuredto fluoresce with a fluorescence intensity that increases or decreasesas a function of the local pH over the range of pH values according to afurther intrinsic intensity function, and wherein either (i) thepH-sensitive fluorophore is configured to fluoresce with a fluorescenceintensity that decreases as a function of the local pH over the range ofpH values and the further pH-sensitive fluorophore is configured tofluoresce with a fluorescence intensity that increases as a function ofthe local pH over the range of pH values, or (ii) the pH-sensitivefluorophore is configured to fluoresce with a fluorescence intensitythat increases as a function of the local pH over the range of pH valuesand the further pH-sensitive fluorophore is configured to fluoresce witha fluorescence intensity that decreases as a function of the local pHover the range of pH values.
 10. A sensor comprising: ananalyte-sensitive substance, wherein the analyte-sensitive substancecomprises: an ionophore, wherein the ionophore is configured to providea local pH within the analyte-sensitive substance related to aconcentration of an analyte proximate the analyte-sensitive substance; apH-sensitive fluorophore, wherein the pH-sensitive fluorophore isconfigured to fluoresce with a fluorescence intensity that increases ordecreases as a function of the local pH over a range of pH valuesaccording to an intrinsic intensity function; and an ionic additive,wherein the ionic additive comprises one of an anionic additive or acationic additive, wherein the ionic additive is configured to only oneof raise or lower the local pH, and wherein an amount of the ionicadditive in the analyte-sensitive substance is specified such that apresence of the analyte proximate the analyte-sensitive substance withina specified range of concentrations results in the local pH having avalue within the range of pH values.
 11. The sensor of claim 10, furthercomprising a plurality of nanoparticles, wherein each nanoparticle ofthe plurality of nanoparticles comprises an enclosing layer composed ofan amphiphilic compound, and wherein the pH-sensitive fluorophore andthe ionic additive are disposed within respective enclosing layers ofindividual nanoparticles of the plurality of nanoparticles.
 12. Thesensor of claim 10, further comprising: a light emitter, wherein thelight emitter is configured to illuminate the analyte-sensitivesubstance such that the pH-sensitive fluorophore is excited; and a lightsensor, wherein the light sensor is configured to detect light emittedfrom the analyte-sensitive substance responsive to the analyte-sensitivesubstance being illuminated by the light emitter.